Course outline
Module 1
Module 1: The Smartphone Revolution
The Smartphone Revolution
Knowledge check
Q1. Which device, released in 2007, is widely regarded as the starting point of the modern smartphone era?
- A. BlackBerry Pearl
- B. Apple iPhone ✓
- C. Nokia 3310
- D. Motorola Razr
Why: Apple released the original iPhone in 2007. Its multi-touch screen and app-based design set the template that most later smartphones followed, marking the start of the modern smartphone era.
Q2. What technology, which allows users to control a device by touching the screen with fingers, became central to smartphones in the 2010s?
- A. Infrared sensing
- B. Stylus input
- C. Multi-touch capacitive screens ✓
- D. Voice-only commands
Why: Capacitive multi-touch screens let users swipe, pinch, and tap with their fingers. This interface made smartphones intuitive for mass audiences and was a defining feature of the 2010s.
Q3. What term describes an app marketplace where users download software for their phones, a model popularised by Apple and Google in the late 2000s?
- A. App store ✓
- B. Cloud server
- C. Modem hub
- D. Data broker
Why: The App Store (launched 2008 by Apple) and Google Play gave users a central place to find and install apps. This ecosystem model transformed how people used phones and how developers earned revenue.
Q4. Which 2010s trend involved people sharing photos taken on their phones, often with filters and captions, on platforms such as Instagram?
- A. Smartphone photography and social sharing ✓
- B. Film camera restoration
- C. Printed photo albums
- D. Satellite imaging
Why: Smartphone cameras became good enough for everyday photography, and apps like Instagram (launched 2010) made it easy to edit and share images instantly. This reshaped personal communication and online culture.
Q5. Why did smartphones make internet memes spread faster during the 2010s?
- A. Phones could only display text, so images were banned
- B. Constant mobile connectivity let people create, share, and reshare content instantly ✓
- C. Memes were printed on paper and mailed to users
- D. Governments required memes to be shared only on desktop computers
Why: Because people carried internet-connected devices at all times, they could create and forward memes within seconds. This speed and constant access accelerated meme culture and its viral spread.
Module 2
Module 2: The Rise of Social Media Platforms
The Rise of Social Media Platforms
Knowledge check
Q1. Which platform, launched in 2010, popularised the Instagram-style photo-sharing feed that became central to 2010s social media culture?
- A. MySpace
- B. Instagram ✓
- C. Friendster
- D. Orkut
Why: Instagram launched in October 2010 as a mobile-first photo-sharing app, and its filtered, image-driven feed became one of the defining social media formats of the decade.
Q2. What feature, introduced by Twitter, allowed users to categorise posts by topic and made trending conversations visible across the platform?
- A. Hashtags ✓
- B. Direct messages
- C. Geotags
- D. Story reels
Why: Hashtags, popularised on Twitter from 2007 onward, let users group posts by topic, and the trending topics list made them a key tool for spreading news and memes in the 2010s.
Q3. What was the primary way smartphones changed social media use in the 2010s?
- A. They made users access platforms mainly through desktop browsers
- B. They allowed constant, on-the-go posting, photo sharing and browsing from anywhere ✓
- C. They removed the need for internet connectivity
- D. They stopped users from sharing images
Why: Smartphones with cameras and mobile data let people post, share and scroll throughout the day, turning social media into a constant, location-independent activity.
Q4. What term describes an image, video or phrase that spreads rapidly online, often with humorous variations added by users?
- A. Algorithm
- B. Meme ✓
- C. Podcast
- D. Firewall
Why: A meme is a piece of cultural content that is copied and modified as it circulates online; memes became a dominant form of online humour and commentary in the 2010s.
Q5. Which phenomenon, widely discussed in the late 2010s, describes social media algorithms showing users content that reinforces their existing views?
- A. Filter bubbles ✓
- B. Viral marketing
- C. Cloud computing
- D. Data mining
Why: Filter bubbles describe how personalised feeds can narrow the range of information users see, reinforcing existing beliefs and contributing to polarisation.
Module 3
Module 3: Memes as a New Language of Politics
Memes as a New Language of Politics
Knowledge check
Q1. In internet culture, what is a 'meme' most commonly defined as?
- A. A formal government policy document shared online
- B. A piece of culture, such as an image, video or phrase, that spreads rapidly and is often modified by users
- C. A type of computer virus that spreads through email attachments
- D. A paid advertisement placed on social media platforms
Q2. Which feature of memes makes them particularly effective as a form of political communication?
- A. They are always produced by professional political consultants
- B. They are short, humorous and easily shareable, lowering the barrier to engaging with political ideas
- C. They are legally required to be factually accurate
- D. They can only be viewed on desktop computers with high-speed internet
Q3. Why did smartphones play an important role in the spread of political memes in the 2010s?
- A. They allowed users to create and share content instantly, anywhere, and at any time
- B. They automatically removed all political content from social media feeds
- C. They required users to read lengthy policy documents before posting
- D. They limited access to images and video, favouring text-only communication
Q4. How can memes contribute to political polarisation?
- A. By presenting every political issue in a balanced way with multiple viewpoints
- B. By reinforcing in-group identity and mocking opposing groups, which can deepen divisions
- C. By encouraging users to read only official government sources
- D. By removing emotional content from political discussion entirely
Q5. What does the term 'remix culture' refer to in the context of political memes?
- A. The practice of only sharing original, unedited political speeches
- B. The practice of altering and reusing existing images or text to create new meanings
- C. The practice of translating political content into music albums
- D. The practice of archiving political content in official government databases
Module 4
Module 4: Algorithms, Feeds and the Attention Economy
Algorithms, Feeds and the Attention Economy
Knowledge check
Q1. What is the term for an online business model where user attention is the scarce resource that platforms compete to capture and sell to advertisers?
- A. The gig economy
- B. The attention economy ✓
- C. The sharing economy
- D. The subscription economy
Why: The attention economy describes how platforms monetise user time and focus, since attention is limited and can be sold to advertisers.
Q2. What is a social media feed most accurately described as?
- A. A chronological list of every post from every account a user follows
- B. A personalised, ranked stream of content selected by an algorithm ✓
- C. A archive of a user's own past posts
- D. A list of advertisements purchased by a single company
Why: Modern feeds use algorithms to rank and select content based on predicted engagement, rather than simply showing posts in time order.
Q3. Which signal do engagement-based recommendation algorithms typically prioritise when deciding what to show a user?
- A. How accurate the content is
- B. How much time the user has spent on the platform
- C. How predicted likes, comments and shares indicate interest ✓
- D. How recently the user's account was created
Why: Engagement-based systems predict how likely a user is to interact with content, using likes, comments and shares as key signals of interest.
Q4. Why do researchers argue that emotionally charged content often spreads widely on social platforms?
- A. Platforms are legally required to amplify anger
- B. Outrage and strong emotion tend to provoke more reactions and shares, which algorithms reward ✓
- C. Emotional posts are always fact-checked first
- D. Users can only read content that matches their mood
Why: Content that provokes strong emotions generates more engagement, and engagement-driven ranking then amplifies it further.
Q5. What does the term 'filter bubble' refer to?
- A. A bug that deletes posts older than 24 hours
- B. A feature that blocks all advertising
- C. A situation where personalised algorithms mainly show users content matching their existing views ✓
- D. A tool that lets users share videos privately
Why: A filter bubble is the isolation that can result when personalisation narrows the range of perspectives a user encounters.
Module 5
Module 5: Online Echo Chambers and Filter Bubbles
Online Echo Chambers and Filter Bubbles
Knowledge check
Q1. What is a 'filter bubble', as the term was popularised by Eli Pariser in 2011?
- A. A software bug that deletes unread messages from a user's inbox
- B. A personalised information environment in which algorithms show users content similar to what they have already engaged with
- C. A security setting that blocks access to websites outside a user's home country
- D. A type of meme format that relies on repeated image macros
Q2. Which of the following best describes an 'echo chamber' in online media?
- A. A platform that bans all political discussion
- B. A social environment where people mostly encounter views that reinforce their existing beliefs and rarely hear dissenting opinions
- C. A room in a data centre designed to reduce audio interference
- D. A feature that automatically repeats videos on a loop
Q3. What is a key difference between a filter bubble and an echo chamber?
- A. A filter bubble is always caused by users deliberately choosing their sources, while an echo chamber is always algorithmic
- B. A filter bubble is primarily produced by algorithmic personalisation, while an echo chamber is largely produced by people's own social choices and networks
- C. Filter bubbles only occur on smartphones, while echo chambers only occur on desktop computers
- D. There is no difference; the two terms are identical
Q4. Why do recommendation algorithms on social media platforms tend to reinforce existing user preferences?
- A. They are legally required to show only content that users have previously liked
- B. They prioritise content that keeps users engaged, and content matching past behaviour is typically more likely to attract clicks, likes and shares
- C. They randomly select posts from a small pool of approved accounts
- D. They display content in alphabetical order by username
Q5. Which of the following is a commonly discussed consequence of online echo chambers for political polarisation?
- A. Greater agreement across political groups because everyone sees the same news
- B. Increased exposure to diverse viewpoints that moderates opinions
- C. Groups may become more extreme in their views and more distrustful of opposing groups, since they rarely encounter counterarguments
- D. A complete elimination of misinformation from public discourse
Module 6
Module 6: Polarisation in Politics and Public Life
Polarisation in Politics and Public Life
Knowledge check
Q1. Which development most directly enabled political content to spread rapidly across social networks in the 2010s?
- A. The widespread adoption of landline telephones
- B. The growth of smartphones and mobile internet access ✓
- C. The decline of television advertising
- D. The introduction of printed daily newspapers
Why: Smartphones put internet access in people's pockets, allowing them to share, react to and redistribute political content instantly, which accelerated the spread of news, opinion and memes across social networks.
Q2. What is a meme in the context of online political culture?
- A. A formal government policy document
- B. A piece of content, often an image or short video with text, that is copied and adapted by many users ✓
- C. A type of encrypted messaging app
- D. A legal term for online defamation
Why: A meme is a unit of cultural content that spreads through imitation and modification. Political memes often use humour and recognisable formats to convey messages quickly and widely.
Q3. What is 'echo chamber' in the study of social media and polarisation?
- A. A physical room used for recording podcasts
- B. A situation where people mainly encounter views that reinforce their existing beliefs ✓
- C. A algorithm that removes all political content
- D. A group of journalists who fact-check each other
Why: An echo chamber occurs when users are primarily exposed to information and opinions that match their own, often because of their social connections and platform recommendation systems, which can deepen polarisation.
Q4. How does affective polarisation differ from ideological polarisation?
- A. Affective polarisation refers to dislike and distrust of opposing political groups, while ideological polarisation refers to differences in policy positions ✓
- B. Affective polarisation refers to policy differences, while ideological polarisation refers to emotional hostility
- C. Both terms refer to the same measurement of voter turnout
- D. Affective polarisation only occurs in parliamentary systems
Why: Ideological polarisation concerns how far apart people's policy views are, whereas affective polarisation concerns how much people dislike and distrust those on the other side. Research suggests the emotional form has grown substantially in many countries, even where policy gaps have changed less.
Q5. Why do social media platforms' engagement-based algorithms often contribute to political polarisation?
- A. They are legally required to show only extreme content
- B. They tend to prioritise content that provokes strong emotional reactions, which can favour divisive or outrage-inducing posts ✓
- C. They prevent users from sharing any political opinions
- D. They only display content from official government sources
Why: Platforms often optimise for clicks, likes, comments and shares. Content that triggers anger or moral outrage tends to generate high engagement, so algorithms can amplify it, contributing to a more polarised information environment.
Module 7
Module 7: Misinformation, Trust and the Future of Discourse
Misinformation, Trust and the Future of Discourse
Knowledge check
Q1. Which development in the 2010s made it far easier for ordinary people to share news, images and opinions instantly with large audiences?
- A. The widespread adoption of fax machines in small businesses
- B. The spread of smartphones with internet access and social media apps
- C. The introduction of printed daily neighbourhood newsletters
- D. The return of radio as the main source of breaking news
Q2. What is a 'meme' in the context of internet culture?
- A. A formal legal document that regulates online speech
- B. A piece of content, often an image with text, that spreads rapidly and is copied or adapted by many users
- C. A type of encrypted messaging protocol
- D. A government-issued warning about online scams
Q3. What does the term 'filter bubble' describe?
- A. A protective app that blocks all incoming messages
- B. A camera effect that makes photos look smoother
- C. A situation where algorithms show users mostly content that matches their existing views, limiting exposure to differing perspectives
- D. A physical barrier installed around data centres
Q4. Which term describes false information spread without the deliberate intent to deceive?
- A. Disinformation
- B. Propaganda
- C. Misinformation
- D. Espionage
Q5. Why did political polarisation in many countries appear to intensify during the 2010s?
- A. Because social media platforms were required by law to show only neutral content
- B. Because engagement-driven algorithms tended to reward emotionally charged content, and people increasingly sorted into opposing online communities
- C. Because smartphones were banned from political discussion
- D. Because newspapers stopped publishing political opinion pieces entirely