Course outline
Module 1
Module 1: What Are Runes? Origins and the Elder Futhark
What Are Runes? Origins and the Elder Futhark
Knowledge check
Q1. What is the general term for the writing system used by the Germanic peoples before the adoption of the Latin alphabet?
- A. Ogham
- B. Runes ✓
- C. Cuneiform
- D. Hieroglyphs
Why: Runes, from the Old Norse and Old English word 'rún' meaning secret or mystery, were the writing system used by Germanic peoples, including the Norse, before the Latin alphabet became widespread.
Q2. What does the name 'Elder Futhark' refer to?
- A. A medieval Norse law code
- B. The oldest known runic alphabet, named after its first six letters ✓
- C. A type of runic stone monument
- D. A Viking-era poem about Odin
Why: 'Futhark' is named after the first six runes of the alphabet (F, U, Th, A, R, K). The 'Elder' prefix distinguishes it from the later Younger Futhark used in Scandinavia during the Viking Age.
Q3. How many runes are in the Elder Futhark?
- A. 16
- B. 24 ✓
- C. 26
- D. 32
Why: The Elder Futhark contains 24 runes, arranged in three groups of eight called 'ættir' (singular 'ætt'). The Younger Futhark was reduced to 16 runes.
Q4. Which of the following is the best description of the earliest runic inscriptions?
- A. They were carved mainly on parchment scrolls in monasteries
- B. They were carved on objects such as stones, weapons, and jewelry, often dating from roughly the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE ✓
- C. They were painted on pottery in Rome
- D. They were written with ink on birch bark in Iceland
Why: The earliest runic inscriptions, dating roughly from the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE, were carved into durable materials such as stone, metal, bone, and wood, often on weapons, amulets, and jewelry.
Q5. Where is the Elder Futhark generally believed to have originated?
- A. Scandinavia, during the Viking Age
- B. Ireland, through Christian monks
- C. Southern Italy, borrowed from the Etruscans
- D. Northern Europe, likely adapted from Mediterranean alphabets such as Latin or Greek ✓
Why: Scholars generally believe the runes were adapted from Mediterranean alphabets, most likely Latin or possibly Greek or Etruscan scripts, by Germanic peoples in northern Europe, probably in the first centuries CE.
Module 2
Module 2: Reading and Writing the Futhark
Reading and Writing the Futhark
Knowledge check
Q1. How many runes are in the Elder Futhark, the oldest form of the runic alphabet?
- A. 16
- B. 24 ✓
- C. 28
- D. 32
Why: The Elder Futhark contains 24 runes, divided into three groups of eight called aettir (singular: ætt). The name 'futhark' comes from the first six runes: F, U, Þ, A, R, K.
Q2. Which rune in the Elder Futhark represents the sound 'th' as in 'thorn'?
- A. ᚦ (thurisaz) ✓
- B. ᚠ (fehu)
- C. ᚱ (raidho)
- D. ᚲ (kenaz)
Why: ᚦ, called thurisaz or 'thurs' (giant), represents the 'th' sound, as in English 'thorn' or 'thin'. Its name in the Old English Futhorc tradition is 'thorn' (þorn).
Q3. Runic inscriptions were traditionally read in which direction?
- A. Only from right to left, like Hebrew
- B. Only from top to bottom, like Chinese columns
- C. Varied: often left to right, but also right to left or boustrophedon (alternating) ✓
- D. Strictly from the center outward in a spiral
Why: Runic writing did not follow one fixed direction. Inscriptions were commonly read left to right, but right-to-left and boustrophedon (alternating line direction, like an ox plowing a field) also occur. Reading direction was often indicated by the orientation of the runes.
Q4. Why were runes often carved into wood, stone, and metal rather than written with ink on parchment?
- A. Ink was forbidden by Norse law
- B. Runes were designed for angular, straight-line carving, since curves were hard to cut into hard materials ✓
- C. Parchment was too expensive for any Scandinavian to use
- D. Runes could only be read when carved in the sun's light
Why: Runes have mostly straight strokes with few curves because they were originally carved into wood, bone, and stone. Straight lines were easier to cut, and this angular style is a key feature of the runic alphabet.
Q5. What is the rune ᚨ (ansuz) associated with in the Elder Futhark's naming tradition?
- A. The god Odin, or a divine ancestral being ✓
- B. The sea, due to its wave-like shape
- C. Fire, due to its flame-like form
- D. The sun, due to its circular outline
Why: Ansuz, the rune for the 'a' sound, is linked to the Æsir gods, especially Odin, whose name is related to the word 'ansuz' (god or divine being). Rune names are reconstructed from later sources and tied to the symbolic meanings of the Norse world.
Module 3
Module 3: Runestones and Where to Find Them
Runestones and Where to Find Them
Knowledge check
Q1. Which country has the largest number of known runestones from the Viking Age?
- A. Norway
- B. Sweden ✓
- C. Denmark
- D. Iceland
Why: Sweden has by far the largest number of runestones, with more than 2,500 known inscriptions, many concentrated in Uppland and Södermanland.
Q2. What is the most famous runestone located in Denmark, often considered a symbol of the nation?
- A. The Rök Runestone
- B. The Jelling Stones ✓
- C. The Ledberg Stone
- D. The Tune Stone
Why: The Jelling Stones, erected by King Harald Bluetooth in the 10th century, are often called Denmark's birth certificate and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Q3. Where is the Rök Runestone, one of the longest runic inscriptions known, located?
- A. Gotland, Sweden
- B. Østergötland, Sweden ✓
- C. Bornholm, Denmark
- D. Hordaland, Norway
Why: The Rök Runestone stands in Östergötland, Sweden, and carries one of the longest runic texts known, with over 700 runes.
Q4. Why are many runestones found standing near roads, bridges, or farms in Scandinavia?
- A. They marked trade routes and were often raised as memorials to the dead, frequently by family members ✓
- B. They were used as boundary markers between kingdoms only
- C. They were carved by Christian missionaries to spread the alphabet
- D. They were built as defensive fortifications against raids
Why: Most runestones were raised as memorials, often for deceased relatives, and placed where many people would pass, such as roads and bridges.
Q5. Which region of Sweden is known for its dense concentration of runestones, particularly around Lake Mälaren?
- A. Lapland
- B. Uppland ✓
- C. Skåne
- D. Dalarna
Why: Uppland, north of Stockholm around Lake Mälaren, has one of the highest densities of runestones in the Viking world, with well over a thousand recorded.
Module 4
Module 4: The Younger Futhark and Viking Age Inscriptions
The Younger Futhark and Viking Age Inscriptions
Knowledge check
Q1. How many runes are in the Younger Futhark?
- A. 16 ✓
- B. 24
- C. 28
- D. 32
Why: The Younger Futhark, used during the Viking Age, was a simplified runic alphabet with 16 runes, reduced from the 24 runes of the Elder Futhark.
Q2. Which Elder Futhark rune set was reduced to create the Younger Futhark?
- A. The Anglo-Saxon futhorc
- B. The 24-rune Elder Futhark ✓
- C. The 28-rune Anglo-Saxon system
- D. The Gothic alphabet
Why: The Younger Futhark developed from the 24-rune Elder Futhark, with many runes simplified or merged to reach 16 characters.
Q3. What is the common name for the Younger Futhark's short-twig variant used in Scandinavia?
- A. Long-branch runes
- B. Short-twig runes ✓
- C. Dotted runes
- D. Hälsingland runes
Why: Short-twig runes were a Scandinavian variant of the Younger Futhark, featuring simplified shapes with shorter strokes, and were common in Viking Age inscriptions.
Q4. Which type of object most commonly bears Viking Age runic inscriptions?
- A. Coins
- B. Runestones ✓
- C. Pottery shards
- D. Silver rings
Why: Runestones, often raised as memorials, are the most famous and numerous Viking Age runic inscriptions, frequently commemorating the dead, though many other objects also bear runes.
Q5. Which famous runestone in Denmark is associated with King Harald Bluetooth?
- A. The Rök stone
- B. The Jelling stone ✓
- C. The Kensington stone
- D. The Ingvar stone
Why: The Jelling stones in Denmark, raised by King Gorm and his son Harald Bluetooth, mention the conversion of the Danes to Christianity and are a landmark Viking Age inscription.
Module 5
Module 5: Runes in Daily Life and Trade
Runes in Daily Life and Trade
Knowledge check
Q1. Which runic alphabet was used by the Scandinavian Vikings during the Viking Age?
- A. Gothic alphabet
- B. Elder Futhark (and its later variant, the Younger Futhark) ✓
- C. Ogham script
- D. Cyrillic alphabet
Why: The Viking Age Scandinavians used the Younger Futhark, a shortened 16-letter version derived from the older 24-letter Elder Futhark. The Gothic alphabet was used by East Germanic peoples, Ogham by the Irish, and Cyrillic developed later in the Slavic world.
Q2. What were runes most commonly carved into in the Viking Age?
- A. Parchment scrolls
- B. Clay tablets
- C. Wood, stone, and metal objects ✓
- D. Woven textiles only
Why: Runes were typically carved into durable materials such as wood, stone (including runestones), bone, and metal. Parchment was associated with Latin manuscripts, and clay tablets were not a typical Norse runic medium.
Q3. Which everyday item from the Viking period frequently bears runic inscriptions recording ownership or craftsmanship?
- A. Combs ✓
- B. Coins from the Roman Empire
- C. Glass windowpanes
- D. Printed books
Why: Combs, bone and antler objects, and tools frequently carry runic inscriptions, often naming an owner or maker. Roman coins were not Viking-made, glass windows were uncommon, and printing arrived in Europe centuries later.
Q4. Why are runic inscriptions found on trade goods and merchant sites valuable to historians?
- A. They prove the Vikings never traded with other cultures
- B. They show that runes were used for practical commercial purposes such as marking goods and recording names ✓
- C. They confirm runes were used only for religious rituals
- D. They demonstrate that runes were invented by Christian monks
Why: Runic marks on trade goods, weights, and items found at marketplaces such as Hedeby and Birka show that writing was used practically in commerce, for labeling, ownership, and transactions, not only for ritual or memorial purposes.
Q5. What does the word 'rune' most closely mean in Old Norse?
- A. Sword
- B. Secret or mystery ✓
- C. Ship
- D. Market
Why: The Old Norse word 'rúnar' is associated with secret, mystery, or whispered knowledge, reflecting the belief that runes conveyed hidden meaning. Although runes were used for everyday purposes, the term itself carries this sense of secrecy.
Module 6
Module 6: Magic, Myth, and Runic Symbolism
Magic, Myth, and Runic Symbolism
Knowledge check
Q1. In Norse tradition, what is the name of the myth in which Odin hangs himself on the World Tree Yggdrasil to gain knowledge of the runes?
- A. The Völuspá
- B. The Hávamál ✓
- C. The Prose Edda
- D. The Gylfaginning
Why: The Hávamál, a poem in the Poetic Edda, describes Odin hanging on Yggdrasil for nine nights, wounded by his own spear, until he perceived the runes and fell back with knowledge.
Q2. What does the word 'rune' most closely mean in Old Norse and Old English?
- A. Written word or secret ✓
- B. Warrior or champion
- C. Storm or thunder
- D. Silver or wealth
Why: The Old Norse word run and Old English rūn carried meanings such as 'secret,' 'mystery,' or 'whisper,' reflecting the runes' association with hidden knowledge and writing.
Q3. Which god is most closely associated with the runes and is said to have discovered them through sacrifice?
- A. Thor
- B. Freyr
- C. Odin ✓
- D. Loki
Why: Odin is the god most associated with runic wisdom; in the Hávamál he gains the runes through self-sacrifice, suffering on the World Tree for nine days and nights.
Q4. What was a common magical use attributed to runes in the Viking Age and later sagas?
- A. Predicting the weather only
- B. Healing wounds, protection, and influencing outcomes through carved inscriptions ✓
- C. Measuring distances at sea
- D. Counting coins in a treasury
Why: Runes were believed to carry protective and healing power, and sagas describe runic charms carved on objects, weapons, and bodies to protect the bearer or affect fortune.
Q5. Which of the following is the name of the runic alphabet used in the Viking Age, sometimes called after its first six letters?
- A. Ogham
- B. Cyrillic
- C. Futhark ✓
- D. Hiragana
Why: The Younger Futhark, a 16-character runic alphabet used in Scandinavia during the Viking Age, takes its name from its first six letters: f, u, th, a, r, k.
Module 7
Module 7: Transliteration and Decoding Real Inscriptions
Transliteration and Decoding Real Inscriptions
Knowledge check
Q1. Which runic alphabet is most commonly used to write Old Norse inscriptions during the Viking Age?
- A. Gothic futhark
- B. Younger futhark ✓
- C. Elder futhark
- D. Anglo-Saxon futhorc
Why: The Younger futhark, with 16 characters, was the standard runic alphabet used across Scandinavia during the Viking Age (roughly 800-1100 CE). The Elder futhark with 24 characters was used earlier, and the Anglo-Saxon futhorc was used in England.
Q2. When transliterating a runic inscription, what does the convention of placing a rune's sound value in square brackets indicate?
- A. The rune is damaged or uncertain ✓
- B. The rune is a bind-rune combining two letters
- C. The text is a later addition
- D. The sound value is in a foreign language
Why: Square brackets in transliteration typically mark letters that are lost, damaged, or restored by the editor. Bind-runes are usually indicated differently, often with a ligature notation or by noting the combined letters.
Q3. In the Younger futhark, the rune traditionally transliterated as 'th' (þ) is named after which concept?
- A. Thurs, meaning giant or thurse
- B. Thorn, a thorn or spike ✓
- C. Tyr, the god of war
- D. Thunor, the god of thunder
Why: The rune þ is called thorn (Old Norse þurs/þorn), and its name reflects the Germanic word for thorn. The rune in the Elder futhark was called thurisaz, meaning giant, but the Younger futhark's name is thorn.
Q4. Which of the following best describes the purpose of a transliteration in runology?
- A. Translating the runic text directly into modern English
- B. Representing runes as the Latin letters they correspond to, for readability ✓
- C. Converting runes into their original Proto-Germanic pronunciation
- D. Recording the physical shape and carving style of the inscription
Why: Transliteration maps each rune to a corresponding Latin letter so scholars can read the inscription, without yet interpreting its meaning. Translation is a separate later step, and recording carving style is a different documentary task.
Q5. A Viking Age inscription is written with the runes ᚠᚢᚦᚬᚱᚴ. What is its transliteration using standard Latin letters?
- A. fuþark
- B. fubarg
- C. fuþǫrk ✓
- D. fuþork
Why: The runes correspond to f, u, þ, ǫ (the rune ᚬ represents an open o sound, often written ǫ or å in transliteration), r, and k, giving fuþǫrk. This name is the source of the term 'futhark' by taking the first six letters of the alphabet.