Course outline
Module 1
Module 1: The Psychology of Memory
The Psychology of Memory
Knowledge check
Q1. What is one reason why eyewitness testimony is considered unreliable?
- A. Memory is always accurate
- B. Memory can be affected by suggestion and stress ✓
- C. Eyewitnesses never make mistakes
- D. Eyewitnesses are always confident in their memories
Why: Memory can be affected by suggestion and stress, which can lead to the formation of false memories or the alteration of accurate ones.
Q2. Which of the following is a common factor that can distort eyewitness memory?
- A. Having a clear view of the event
- B. Being under high stress during the event ✓
- C. Having prior knowledge of the suspect
- D. Being in a familiar environment
Why: High stress during an event can impair memory encoding and retrieval, leading to less accurate eyewitness accounts.
Q3. What is the term for when a person's memory is influenced by misleading information after an event?
- A. Source amnesia
- B. False memory
- C. Confabulation
- D. Post-event suggestion ✓
Why: Post-event suggestion refers to the influence of misleading information presented after an event, which can alter a person's memory of the event.
Q4. Which of the following is a consequence of relying heavily on eyewitness testimony in legal cases?
- A. It always leads to correct convictions
- B. It can lead to wrongful convictions ✓
- C. It reduces the need for other evidence
- D. It ensures justice is always served
Why: Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, and relying heavily on it can lead to wrongful convictions if the testimony is incorrect.
Q5. What is a key finding from the work of Elizabeth Loftus regarding eyewitness testimony?
- A. Eyewitnesses are never influenced by media coverage
- B. Eyewitness memory is immune to suggestion
- C. Eyewitnesses can be influenced by misleading information ✓
- D. Eyewitnesses always remember events accurately
Why: Elizabeth Loftus demonstrated that eyewitness memory can be influenced by misleading information, leading to the creation of false memories.
Module 2
Module 2: Factors Affecting Eyewitness Accuracy
Factors Affecting Eyewitness Accuracy
Knowledge check
Q1. Which of the following is a common factor that reduces eyewitness accuracy?
- A. A. Clear lighting conditions
- B. B. Stress during the event ✓
- C. C. Short duration of the event
- D. D. Familiarity with the perpetrator
Why: Stress during the event can significantly impair memory and eyewitness accuracy.
Q2. What is the term for when a witness is shown a lineup and asked to identify the suspect?
- A. A. Photographic lineup
- B. B. Sequential lineup
- C. C. Lineup identification ✓
- D. D. Eyewitness identification
Why: Lineup identification refers to the process where a witness views a lineup of suspects and identifies the person they believe committed the crime.
Q3. Which of the following is a reason why eyewitnesses often misidentify suspects?
- A. A. The suspect was wearing a disguise ✓
- B. B. The witness had prior knowledge of the suspect
- C. C. The lineup was fair and unbiased
- D. D. The witness was confident in their identification
Why: A disguise can make it difficult for a witness to accurately identify the suspect, leading to potential misidentification.
Q4. What is the impact of leading questions on eyewitness testimony?
- A. A. They improve memory recall
- B. B. They increase accuracy
- C. C. They can distort memory and lead to false information ✓
- D. D. They have no effect on memory
Why: Leading questions can influence a witness's memory and lead them to provide inaccurate or false information.
Q5. Which factor is most likely to improve eyewitness accuracy?
- A. A. Poor lighting
- B. B. A short time between the event and identification
- C. C. A detailed description of the suspect
- D. D. A fair and unbiased lineup ✓
Why: A fair and unbiased lineup reduces the chances of misidentification and improves eyewitness accuracy.
Module 3
Module 3: Reconstructing the Past: Memory and Imagination
Reconstructing the Past: Memory and Imagination
Knowledge check
Q1. What is a common reason eyewitness testimony is considered unreliable?
Why: Because memory can be influenced by external factors and imagination
Q2. Which of the following is a factor that can distort memory during recall?
Why: Suggestive questioning
Q3. What does the term 'reconstructive memory' refer to?
Why: The process of rebuilding memories from fragments
Q4. Which part of the brain is primarily involved in forming and retrieving memories?
Why: The hippocampus
Q5. What is one effect of stress on eyewitness memory?
Why: It can impair the accuracy of memory recall
Module 4
Module 4: The Influence of Suggestive Questioning
The Influence of Suggestive Questioning
Knowledge check
Q1. What is the main effect of suggestive questioning on eyewitness testimony?
- A. It increases the accuracy of memory
- B. It can lead to the creation of false memories ✓
- C. It has no impact on memory recall
- D. It only affects children's memory
Why: Suggestive questioning can implant false information into a witness's memory, leading to inaccurate or entirely false testimony.
Q2. Which of the following is an example of a suggestive question?
- A. What color was the car?
- B. Was the car red or blue?
- C. Did you see a green car? ✓
- D. What was the make of the car?
Why: Asking about a specific detail that may not be accurate (like green) can suggest a particular answer and influence the witness's memory.
Q3. What is the term used to describe the process where a person starts to believe a false memory due to suggestive questioning?
- A. Confabulation
- B. Misattribution
- C. Source monitoring error
- D. Imagination inflation ✓
Why: Imagination inflation refers to the phenomenon where imagining an event can lead a person to believe it actually occurred, often due to suggestive questioning.
Q4. Which type of questioning is least likely to produce false memories?
- A. Open-ended questions ✓
- B. Closed-ended questions
- C. Leading questions
- D. Suggestive questions
Why: Open-ended questions allow the witness to provide their own account without being influenced by the questioner's suggestions.
Q5. What is a common consequence of using leading questions during an interview with an eyewitness?
- A. Improved memory recall
- B. Increased confidence in accurate memories
- C. Creation of detailed but inaccurate memories ✓
- D. No effect on memory
Why: Leading questions can cause witnesses to create detailed but inaccurate memories, as they may incorporate suggested details into their recollection.
Module 5
Module 5: False Memories and Confabulation
False Memories and Confabulation
Knowledge check
Q1. What is a false memory?
- A. A memory that is completely accurate
- B. A memory that is not based on actual events ✓
- C. A memory that is always recalled correctly
- D. A memory that is never confused with other memories
Why: False memories are recollections of events that did not occur or are a distorted version of actual events.
Q2. Which of the following is a common cause of false memories?
- A. Perfect recall
- B. Suggestive questioning ✓
- C. Strong emotional memory
- D. Complete lack of stress
Why: Suggestive questioning can lead to the creation of false memories by influencing a person's recollection.
Q3. What is confabulation?
- A. A deliberate lie
- B. The creation of false memories without intent to deceive ✓
- C. A form of forgetfulness
- D. A type of memory loss due to aging
Why: Confabulation refers to the production of false memories without the intent to deceive, often due to memory gaps.
Q4. Which of the following is a risk factor for developing false memories?
- A. High intelligence
- B. High stress levels ✓
- C. Perfect attention to detail
- D. Strong visual memory
Why: High stress levels can increase the likelihood of forming false memories due to impaired memory processing.
Q5. What is the role of the hippocampus in false memories?
- A. It prevents false memories from forming
- B. It is not involved in memory formation
- C. It plays a key role in memory consolidation and can contribute to false memories ✓
- D. It only stores factual information
Why: The hippocampus is involved in memory consolidation and can contribute to the formation of false memories when it misbinds information.
Module 6
Module 6: Eyewitness Testimony in Legal Proceedings
Eyewitness Testimony in Legal Proceedings
Knowledge check
Q1. What is a common reason why eyewitness testimony is considered unreliable in legal proceedings?
- A. Eyewitnesses always remember details accurately
- B. Memory can be influenced by suggestion and stress ✓
- C. Eyewitnesses are never mistaken
- D. Eyewitnesses are always confident in their recollections
Why: Memory can be influenced by suggestion and stress, which can lead to inaccuracies in eyewitness testimony.
Q2. Which of the following factors can decrease the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
- A. Clear lighting conditions
- B. Short time between the event and identification
- C. High level of attention from the witness
- D. Stressful or traumatic environment ✓
Why: A stressful or traumatic environment can impair a witness's ability to accurately recall and identify individuals.
Q3. What is the term used for when an eyewitness is exposed to misleading information after an event, which affects their memory?
- A. Confabulation
- B. Suggestibility ✓
- C. Repression
- D. Amnesia
Why: Suggestibility refers to the tendency of eyewitnesses to be influenced by misleading information after an event, which can distort their memory.
Q4. Which of the following is a known consequence of lineup procedures in eyewitness identification?
- A. Increased accuracy of identification
- B. Increased confidence in correct identifications
- C. Higher rates of false identifications ✓
- D. Decreased memory retention
Why: Improper lineup procedures can lead to higher rates of false identifications, as they may unintentionally influence the witness.
Q5. What is a major issue with cross-race identification in eyewitness testimony?
- A. It is more accurate than same-race identification
- B. It is less accurate due to differences in facial features ✓
- C. It is not affected by bias
- D. It is always reliable in legal cases
Why: Cross-race identification is often less accurate due to differences in facial features and potential biases, which can affect the reliability of the testimony.
Module 7
Module 7: Improving Eyewitness Reliability
Improving Eyewitness Reliability
Knowledge check
Q1. What is one effective method to improve eyewitness reliability during an identification procedure?
- A. Using a sequential lineup ✓
- B. Using a simultaneous lineup
- C. Allowing the witness to make a decision without any guidance
- D. Encouraging the witness to guess if unsure
Why: Sequential lineups have been shown to reduce the likelihood of false identifications by allowing the witness to compare each individual one at a time, rather than simultaneously.
Q2. Which of the following factors can increase the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
- A. Stress during the event
- B. A short time interval between the event and identification
- C. Detailed instructions during the identification process ✓
- D. Lack of confidence in the witness
Why: Detailed instructions during the identification process help the witness understand the procedure and reduce errors, thereby increasing accuracy.
Q3. What is a common problem with simultaneous lineups?
- A. They are too quick to complete
- B. They increase the chance of false identification ✓
- C. They are not used often enough
- D. They are too expensive to conduct
Why: Simultaneous lineups can increase the chance of false identification because witnesses may feel pressured to pick someone even if they are unsure, due to the presence of multiple individuals at once.
Q4. Which of the following is a benefit of using a photo array instead of a live lineup?
- A. It is more stressful for the witness
- B. It reduces the chance of contamination ✓
- C. It increases the chance of misidentification
- D. It is less reliable
Why: Photo arrays can reduce the chance of contamination because they prevent witnesses from being influenced by the behavior or appearance of the individuals present during the lineup.
Q5. What is a key recommendation for law enforcement to improve eyewitness reliability?
- A. Avoid showing the suspect in the lineup
- B. Provide detailed instructions to the witness ✓
- C. Limit the number of participants in the lineup
- D. Encourage the witness to guess if unsure
Why: Providing detailed instructions to the witness helps them understand the identification process, which can improve reliability and reduce errors.